One Health approach and tiered strategy to assess anticoagulant rodenticides exposure in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Central Italy

Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are widely used in urban and agricultural areas to control rodent populations, leading to potential exposure of non-target species like red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). However, data on AR exposure in red foxes in Italy remain limited. This study analyzed 92 red fox liver samples for residues of ten ARs, categorizing concentrations into five groups to assess potential toxicological risks. The data were also compared with the CORINE Land Cover dataset and correlated with infectious and parasitic diseases, including respiratory and intestinal infections. Residues of at least one AR were found in 46 of 92 samples (50 %), with 25% containing one AR, 20 % containing two, and 5 % containing three. Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) were more prevalent than first-generation anticoagulants (FGARs), detected in 47.9 % of the samples. Positive samples were primarily from agricultural areas but were also found in urban settings. The concentrations observed suggest potential biological and toxicological risks, with a significant correlation between ARs and respiratory parasitic infections. This study confirms the exposure of Italian red foxes to ARs and highlights the need for integrated risk mitigation strategies to protect humans, animals, and environmental health.