Portable electrochemical sensor for trace analysis of ciprofloxacin in water and pharmaceutical samples

Trace-level monitoring of ciprofloxacin (CPRO) in aquatic environments is essential for managing antibiotic pollution and bacterial resistance. This study presents a cost-effective portable sensor that employs square-wave anodic stripping voltammetry (SWASV) at an unmodified glassy carbon electrode (GCE) operated in acetate buffer. Detailed optimization tests were performed with the aim of finding the best parameters for this purpose. In particular, deposition time and frequency were tested and all the analytical performance were verified. River-water recoveries attained concentrations obtained by HPLC-MS/MS, HPLC-DAD, and UV/Vis methods. On-site measurements agreed with laboratory analyses, validating field applicability. The protocol also quantified a commercial eye-drop formulation demonstrating applicability of system to pharmaceutical excipients. Overall, the SWASV-GCE method provides a robust, low-cost method for rapid in-situ determination of ciprofloxacin in environmental waters and pharmaceutical matrices. Additionally, a green profile evaluation by means of the recent tools was also addressed and discussed.