Ultrasound-based technologies for managing and promoting dog reproductive health

Ultrasonography has become an essential component of reproductive diagnostics in the dog, yet its full potential remains only partially explored compared with human reproductive medicine. This PhD project aimed to advance the understanding and application of multiparametric ultrasonographic techniques in canine reproduction, with a particular focus on the testis and the uterus, two organs central to fertility assessment but for which imaging-based functional biomarkers are still limited. The dissertation is structured to integrate a technological overview, a comprehensive synthesis of existing knowledge, and original experimental studies. First, the work provides an updated appraisal of the principles, capabilities, and technical considerations of B-mode imaging, Doppler ultrasonography, contrast-enhanced ultrasonography (CEUS), ultrasound elastography (UEl), and 3D/4D modalities, contextualising their historical development and differential adoption in human and veterinary medicine. These technologies are then examined in depth through two organ-specific reviews, which consolidate current understanding of anatomy, physiology, vascularisation, normal and abnormal ultrasonographic findings, and diagnostic applications for the canine testis and uterus. The original research component comprises two experimental studies. The first investigates testicular strain elastography in dogs undergoing elective orchiectomy, demonstrating that testicular stiffness correlates with spermatogenic activity and histological parameters. The findings indicate that elastography may serve as a non-invasive adjunct for functional andrological assessment. The second study applies strain elastography to the canine cervix across reproductive phases, showing phase-dependent changes in cervical stiffness and identifying correlations with B-mode features and endocrine patterns, highlighting the technique’s potential for refining cycle staging and improving clinical decision-making. Taken together, the thesis advances reproductive ultrasonography in the dog by integrating structural, functional, and biomechanical imaging approaches. It also identifies recurring diagnostic challenges and outlines future research directions aimed at enhancing clinical translation.